Evidence from Old Maps and Documents: Dokdo on Paper
Evidence from Old Maps and Documents: Dokdo on Paper
Historical maps and documents provide some of the most compelling evidence in territorial disputes, offering concrete visual and textual proof of how nations understood and claimed territories across centuries. The cartographic and documentary record regarding Dokdo overwhelmingly supports Korean sovereignty, with Korean sources consistently recognizing the islands as Korean territory from the 15th century onward, while Japanese sources for centuries acknowledged Korean ownership before imperial expansion reversed this position. This comprehensive examination explores the rich archival evidence that definitively establishes Dokdo's historical status as Korean territory.
Table of Contents
Ancient Korean Official Documents
Korean official government records provide an unbroken chain of documentary evidence recognizing Dokdo as Korean territory, extending back over five centuries. These are not casual mentions or ambiguous references but authoritative state documents compiled by government officials specifically tasked with recording geographical and administrative information. The consistency and official nature of these sources establish beyond doubt that Korean authorities recognized and claimed Dokdo throughout the Joseon Dynasty and earlier periods.
The Sejong Sillok Jiriji, completed in 1454 during the reign of King Sejong the Great, represents one of the earliest and most authoritative Korean geographical records. This document, an appendix to the Annals of King Sejong, contains a systematic description of Korean territory including detailed information about islands off the eastern coast. The text specifically mentions Usando and Mureungdo, historical names for Dokdo and Ulleungdo, describing their location and relationship to the Korean mainland.
The Sejong Sillok's significance extends beyond merely mentioning the islands. As part of the official dynastic annals, this document represents the authoritative government position on Korean territorial boundaries. The Joseon Dynasty maintained meticulous records, with royal scribes documenting all significant state matters. The inclusion of Usando (Dokdo) in this geographical appendix demonstrates that Korean authorities at the highest level recognized the islands as part of Korean territory in the mid-15th century—over 350 years before Japan's 1905 incorporation.
Sejong Sillok Jiriji (1454) - Key Passage:
"Ulleungdo and Usando are located in the sea directly east of the county. The two islands are not far from each other and can be seen from each other when the weather is clear."
This passage establishes that Korean authorities recognized two distinct islands (Ulleungdo and Usando/Dokdo) as Korean territory, understood their relative proximity, and documented the visibility between them—details that could only come from actual knowledge and recognition of sovereignty.
The Dongguk Munheon Bigo, an encyclopedic compilation of Korean documentary sources published in 1770 under King Yeongjo, provides another crucial piece of evidence. This comprehensive reference work brought together historical documents, geographical information, and administrative records from across Korean history. The section on geography explicitly includes Usando within Korean territorial boundaries, reaffirming the recognition established in the Sejong Sillok over three centuries earlier.
What makes the Dongguk Munheon Bigo particularly significant is its comprehensive nature and the scholarly rigor applied to its compilation. This was not a hastily assembled document but a carefully researched encyclopedic work meant to serve as an authoritative reference for government officials and scholars. The consistent inclusion of Usando demonstrates that Korean recognition of the islands as Korean territory remained uninterrupted across the intervening centuries.
Major Korean Documentary Evidence:
1454: Sejong Sillok Jiriji describes Usando (Dokdo) as Korean territory
1531: Sinjeung Dongguk Yeoji Seungram includes Usando in Gangwon Province
1770: Dongguk Munheon Bigo confirms Usando within Korean boundaries
1808: Mangi Yoram designates Usando as part of Ulleung County jurisdiction
1900: Korean Imperial Edict No. 41 officially places Dokdo under Ulleung County
1906: Ulleung County magistrate reports Japanese encroachment on Korean territory
The Mangi Yoram, compiled in 1808, represents another authoritative governmental reference work that includes detailed administrative and geographical information. This document explicitly designates Usando as falling within the jurisdiction of Ulleung County, demonstrating not merely recognition but actual administrative incorporation of the islands into Korea's governmental structure. This administrative designation carries particular legal weight, as it shows Korea exercising sovereign authority by assigning the islands to a specific county's jurisdiction.
Perhaps most significantly, Korean Imperial Edict No. 41, issued on October 25, 1900, formally renamed Ulleungdo as Uldo County and specified that the county's jurisdiction included "Ulleungdo, Jukdo, and Seokdo." Scholars have established that "Seokdo" (Stone Island) was the contemporary Korean name for Dokdo, derived from the islands' rocky composition. This edict, issued just five years before Japan's secret incorporation, demonstrates Korea's clear exercise of sovereignty through official administrative designation.
Korean Cartographic Evidence
Korean maps from the 15th through 19th centuries consistently depict islands off Korea's eastern coast in positions corresponding to Ulleungdo and Dokdo, providing visual evidence complementing the documentary record. While medieval and early modern cartography lacked the precision of modern mapping techniques, these maps demonstrate Korean cartographers' awareness and recognition of the islands as part of Korean territory, depicting them in the context of Korean administrative boundaries and geographical features.
The Paldo Chongdo, an early Joseon Dynasty map from the 15th century, represents one of the earliest Korean maps showing islands off the eastern coast. While the exact identification of specific islands can be challenging due to the stylized nature of early Korean cartography, the consistent inclusion of eastern islands on successive maps demonstrates continued Korean recognition of these territories. Korean cartographic tradition maintained remarkable consistency across centuries, with later maps building upon and refining earlier geographic knowledge.
The Dongguk Daejido, created by Jeong Sang-gi in the late 18th century, provides more detailed cartographic evidence. This map represents one of the most sophisticated Korean maps of its era, incorporating improved geographic knowledge and more accurate positioning of features. The map clearly shows two islands east of the Korean peninsula—Ulleungdo and a smaller island identified as Usando, positioned in a manner consistent with Dokdo's actual location relative to Ulleungdo.
Cartographic Consistency: Korean maps from the 15th through 19th centuries consistently show two islands off the eastern coast—a larger island (Ulleungdo) and a smaller island (Usando/Dokdo). This consistency across 400+ years of mapmaking demonstrates sustained Korean geographic knowledge and territorial recognition, not random or occasional mentions.
The Daedongyeojido, created by Kim Jeong-ho in 1861, represents the pinnacle of traditional Korean cartography. This detailed map of the entire Korean peninsula includes Ulleungdo and shows another island to its east. Kim Jeong-ho was one of Korea's greatest cartographers, known for the accuracy and detail of his work. His inclusion of the eastern islands reflects not speculation but the incorporation of accumulated geographic knowledge, including reports from Korean fishermen and officials who had visited or observed the islands.
The Haejwa Jeondo, another significant 19th-century Korean map, similarly depicts the eastern islands within Korean maritime territory. What makes this map particularly valuable is its focus on coastal and maritime features, suggesting that the eastern islands were understood not merely as distant territories but as relevant features for Korean maritime navigation and fishing activities. This practical recognition reinforces the documentary evidence of Korean use and administration.
An important aspect of Korean cartographic evidence is the continuity it demonstrates. Unlike situations where maps suddenly begin showing disputed territory in response to political claims, Korean maps consistently depicted the eastern islands across centuries, in peace and in conflict, under different rulers and dynasties. This consistency suggests genuine geographic knowledge and territorial recognition rather than politically motivated cartographic assertions.
Historical Map Analysis:
Korean maps consistently used specific naming conventions for the eastern islands: Usando (于山島), Sambongdo (三峰島 - Three Peaks Island), and later Seokdo (石島 - Stone Island). These names all refer to Dokdo's characteristics—its visibility from Ulleungdo, its rocky peaks, and its stone composition. The evolution of naming reflects increasing familiarity and more precise identification, strengthening rather than weakening the claim of continuous Korean recognition.
Japanese Historical Maps Acknowledging Korean Ownership
Perhaps the most compelling evidence for Korean sovereignty comes from Japanese historical sources themselves, which for centuries acknowledged that the islands off Korea's eastern coast belonged to Korea, not Japan. These Japanese maps and documents, created long before the 1905 incorporation during imperial expansion, provide irrefutable evidence that Japan recognized Korean ownership of Dokdo and only reversed this position during its colonial conquest of Korea.
The most significant Japanese documentary evidence comes from the Dajokan Directive of 1877, an official instruction from Japan's highest governmental authority during the Meiji era. In response to an inquiry from Shimane Prefecture about whether Ulleungdo and another island (widely understood to be Dokdo) should be included in Japanese land surveys and registrations, the Dajokan—Japan's equivalent of the modern Cabinet—issued a clear directive stating: "Regarding Ulleungdo and one other island, keep in mind that our country has nothing to do with them."
This 1877 directive carries enormous legal and historical weight. It represents an official determination by Japan's highest governmental authority that these islands were not Japanese territory. The directive was issued just nine years after the Meiji Restoration, during a period when Japan was carefully cataloging its territories as part of modernization efforts. The explicit exclusion of these islands from Japanese territory demonstrates that Japan officially recognized they belonged to another nation—Korea.
Dajokan Directive (1877) - Official Translation:
"The inquiry regarding the land in question is about Ulleungdo and one other island in the Sea of Japan. After examining documents and others, it is to be understood that our country has nothing to do with them."
This unambiguous statement from Japan's highest governmental authority in 1877—just 28 years before the 1905 incorporation—proves Japan officially recognized these islands as non-Japanese territory. Japan's later claim contradicts its own governmental determination.
Japanese maps from the Edo period similarly support Korean ownership. The Kaisei Nihon여도 and various domain maps from the 17th and 18th centuries either exclude the islands east of Oki from Japanese territory or depict them in ways suggesting foreign ownership. When Japanese cartographers did include Ulleungdo and Dokdo on maps, they frequently used different colors or notations to distinguish them from Japanese territory—cartographic conventions indicating foreign lands.
The Genroku Period竹島 Edict provides additional Japanese evidence. During the Genroku era in the late 17th century, a dispute arose between Japanese fishermen and Korean authorities regarding Ulleungdo. After negotiations, the Tokugawa shogunate issued an edict in 1696 prohibiting Japanese fishermen from traveling to Ulleungdo, recognizing it as Korean territory. While this edict focused primarily on Ulleungdo, the historical context and contemporary understanding included Dokdo within the same territorial designation, as the islands were understood as associated features.
The Hayashi Shihei Map, created by Japanese scholar Hayashi Shihei in 1785, provides another example of Japanese recognition of Korean ownership. This map, titled "Sangoku Tsūran Zusetsu" (Illustrated Survey of Three Countries), depicted Korea, Ryukyu, and Ezo. Hayashi colored Ulleungdo and Dokdo in the same color as Korea, distinct from Japanese territories, clearly indicating his understanding that these islands belonged to Korea. While Hayashi was a private scholar rather than a government official, his work reflected the general Japanese understanding of the era.
What makes this Japanese evidence particularly powerful is that it contradicts Japan's contemporary claims. If Dokdo were truly "inherent Japanese territory" as Japan now asserts, why would Japan's highest governmental authority in 1877 explicitly state that Japan "has nothing to do with" the islands? Why would Japanese maps use different colors to distinguish them from Japanese territory? The only logical explanation is that Japan recognized Korean ownership until imperial expansion motivated the reversal of this position.
The Reversal of 1905: Japan's 1905 incorporation of Dokdo directly contradicted its own 1877 governmental directive acknowledging the islands were not Japanese territory. This reversal occurred precisely during Japan's imperial expansion and just before Korea's complete colonization—timing that reveals the incorporation's true nature as colonial conquest rather than legitimate territorial claim based on historical ownership.
Western Exploration and Naval Maps
Western maps created during the age of exploration and European naval surveying provide a third category of evidence—external, relatively neutral sources that documented Asian geography from non-Asian perspectives. While these maps often used Western names for features and sometimes contained errors due to incomplete knowledge, they provide valuable evidence about international understanding of territorial ownership in the region and offer insights into how the islands were perceived by outside observers.
The islands now known as Dokdo first appeared on Western maps under various names given by European explorers who encountered them while sailing Asian waters. The most common Western name became "Liancourt Rocks," named after the French whaling ship Liancourt whose crew surveyed the islands in 1849. British and American naval charts also documented the islands under names like "Hornet Rocks" and "Menelai and Olivutsa Rocks," reflecting multiple Western encounters with the islands during the 19th century.
What these Western maps reveal is the islands' location and characteristics rather than clear attribution of sovereignty. Western cartographers generally placed the islands on maps showing the Korean coast and Japanese coast, positioning them geographically between the two nations but significantly closer to Korean territory. The islands' appearance on maps of the "Sea of Japan" or "East Sea" alongside Korean coastal features suggests Western observers understood them as existing within Korean maritime space.
Western Cartographic Record:
1787: French explorer La Pérouse maps Korean east coast, notes islands
1849: French ship Liancourt surveys islands, giving them Western name
1854: Russian ship Pallas surveys islands, names them Menelai and Olivutsa
1855: British survey ship HMS Hornet charts islands as "Hornet Rocks"
1876-1900: Various British Admiralty charts show islands near Korean coast
1933: International Hydrographic Organization lists islands with Korean place names
British Admiralty charts from the late 19th century provide particularly detailed evidence. These charts, created for naval navigation purposes, needed to be accurate regarding territorial waters and coastal jurisdictions. British charts consistently positioned the islands closer to Korean territory than to Japanese territory and often included them on charts focused on the Korean coast rather than charts of Japanese waters—suggesting British naval authorities understood them as associated with Korean maritime space.
The Siebold Map controversy provides an interesting case study in cartographic interpretation. Philipp Franz von Siebold, a German physician working in Japan during the 1840s, created maps that sometimes confused Ulleungdo and Dokdo or misplaced them. Japan has occasionally cited Siebold's maps as evidence for Japanese claims. However, Siebold's errors are well documented, and his maps contradicted both Japanese and Korean sources of the same era. Moreover, Siebold was working from secondhand information in Japan and had never visited the islands himself—his maps reflect confusion rather than authoritative knowledge.
Geographical Reality: Western naval charts created for practical navigation consistently noted that Liancourt Rocks (Dokdo) were approximately 87 kilometers from Korean territory (Ulleungdo) but 157 kilometers from Japanese territory (Oki Islands). This geographical proximity appeared on map after map, providing objective evidence that the islands naturally belonged to Korean maritime space rather than Japanese waters.
American naval charts from the late 19th and early 20th centuries similarly documented the islands' position. The United States Navy, maintaining extensive Pacific operations, created detailed charts of East Asian waters for navigation and military purposes. These charts positioned the islands closer to Korea and often included them on charts that focused on Korean coastal waters and approaches, reflecting an operational understanding that they existed within Korean maritime territory.
Post-World War II mapping provides crucial evidence regarding international understanding of territorial boundaries. When Allied forces occupied Japan and administered Korea, military maps clearly distinguished territories. The maps created by SCAPIN directives excluded Dokdo from Japanese administrative authority, placing it within the area controlled by United States military government in Korea. These maps reflected the Allied Powers' understanding of which territories belonged to Japan and which did not—understanding based on examination of historical records and geographical realities.
Modern Era Documentation and Treaties
The modern documentary record—spanning the late 19th century through the post-World War II period—provides crucial evidence about how territorial sovereignty evolved during the transition from traditional Asian geopolitics to the modern international system. These documents reveal the processes by which Korea's historical claims were challenged during Japanese imperialism and subsequently reaffirmed after Japan's defeat, demonstrating the continuity between historical Korean ownership and contemporary Korean sovereignty.
Korean Imperial Edict No. 41, issued on October 25, 1900, represents the last clear Korean governmental assertion of sovereignty before Japanese colonial intervention prevented further such assertions. This edict reorganized the administration of Ulleungdo, renaming it Uldo County and specifying that the county magistrate's jurisdiction included "Ulleungdo, Jukdo, and Seokdo." The identification of Seokdo with Dokdo is supported by multiple forms of evidence, including the name's meaning (Stone Island), local dialect usage, and the absence of any other island that could fit the designation.
The significance of Imperial Edict No. 41 extends beyond its text. Issued through proper governmental channels and published in the official gazette, it represents Korea's formal, public assertion of administrative control over Dokdo just five years before Japan's secret incorporation. The edict demonstrates Korea was actively exercising sovereignty, not merely maintaining historical claims. Japan's 1905 incorporation claimed Dokdo was ownerless, but this edict proves Korea was administering the island at the very time Japan claimed no nation owned it.
Imperial Edict No. 41 (October 25, 1900):
"Article 1: Ulleungdo will be renamed Uldo and the island magistrate will be upgraded to county magistrate.
Article 2: The county office will be located in Dae-ha-dong and will govern the entire island of Ulleungdo, Jukdo, and Seokdo."
This official governmental designation of Seokdo (Dokdo) as falling under Uldo County jurisdiction five years before Japan's incorporation proves Korea was actively administering the islands, contradicting Japan's terra nullius claim.
The 1906 Ulleung County Magistrate's Report provides dramatic evidence of Korea's response to Japanese encroachment. After Japanese officials visited Dokdo in 1906 following the secret 1905 incorporation, Sim Heung-taek, the magistrate of Ulleung County, sent an urgent report to his superiors stating that Japanese officials had informed him Dokdo had been incorporated into Japanese territory. Magistrate Sim's report treated this as shocking news of foreign encroachment on Korean territory, referring to Dokdo as Korean land that had been invaded.
The Korean government's response to Magistrate Sim's report further demonstrates Korean recognition of sovereignty. Central government officials in Seoul instructed the magistrate to investigate and report details about the Japanese actions. These instructions treated the Japanese incorporation as an unauthorized intrusion requiring investigation—the response of a government whose territory has been violated, not a government hearing about a legitimate foreign claim to ownerless territory. Only Japan's elimination of Korean diplomatic sovereignty later that year prevented Korea from protesting through international channels.
Post-World War II documents provide the most recent authoritative evidence. SCAPIN No. 677, issued January 29, 1946, explicitly excluded Dokdo from Japanese administrative authority, as discussed in previous sections. The directive stated: "For the purpose of this directive, Japan is defined to exclude...Liancourt Rocks (Take Island)." This represented the Allied Powers' official determination, based on examination of historical evidence and geographical realities, that Dokdo should be separated from Japanese control.
Modern Documentary Timeline:
October 25, 1900: Korean Imperial Edict No. 41 places Seokdo (Dokdo) under Uldo County
February 22, 1905: Japan secretly incorporates Dokdo into Shimane Prefecture
March 28, 1906: Japanese officials visit Dokdo, inform Ulleung County magistrate
March 29, 1906: Magistrate Sim reports Japanese encroachment as invasion of Korean territory
January 29, 1946: SCAPIN 677 excludes Dokdo from Japanese administrative authority
August 15, 1948: Republic of Korea established, inherits sovereignty over Dokdo
January 18, 1952: President Rhee establishes Peace Line including Dokdo in Korean waters
The 1951 San Francisco Peace Treaty negotiations generated extensive documentation revealing how the Allied Powers viewed Dokdo's status. While the final treaty text did not explicitly mention Dokdo, draft versions and supporting documents provide important context. Early American drafts explicitly listed Dokdo among territories Japan should renounce, though this language was removed in later versions as Cold War priorities shifted American policy toward strengthening Japan as a regional ally.
The Republic of Korea's establishment in 1948 marked the formal restoration of Korean independence and sovereignty. From its inception, the ROK government exercised sovereignty over Dokdo, inheriting the territorial claims and administrative structures of previous Korean governments. In 1952, President Syngman Rhee issued the Peace Line declaration, establishing maritime boundaries that included Dokdo within Korean waters. While Japan protested this declaration, Korea maintained effective control, installing lighthouse facilities and deploying administrative personnel.
Frequently Asked Questions
What are the most important Korean historical documents proving sovereignty over Dokdo?
The most significant Korean documents include the Sejong Sillok Jiriji (1454), which describes Usando (Dokdo) as Korean territory; the Dongguk Munheon Bigo (1770), an encyclopedic compilation confirming Usando within Korean boundaries; the Mangi Yoram (1808), designating Usando under Ulleung County jurisdiction; and Imperial Edict No. 41 (1900), officially placing Seokdo (Dokdo) under Korean administrative control. These documents span over 450 years, demonstrating consistent Korean recognition and administration. Their official governmental nature—as dynastic annals, administrative references, and imperial edicts—gives them particular authority as evidence of sovereign claims.
Did Japanese historical sources recognize Korean ownership of Dokdo?
Yes, crucially, Japanese historical sources acknowledged Korean ownership for centuries. The most important evidence is the Dajokan Directive of 1877, where Japan's highest governmental authority explicitly stated that Japan "has nothing to do with" Ulleungdo and another island (Dokdo). This official determination came just 28 years before Japan's 1905 incorporation, proving Japan recognized the islands as non-Japanese territory until imperial expansion reversed this position. Additionally, the 1696 shogunate edict prohibited Japanese fishermen from traveling to Ulleungdo, recognizing Korean sovereignty, and various Edo-period maps depicted the islands using colors or notations indicating foreign territory.
How do Western historical maps address the Dokdo question?
Western maps from the 19th and early 20th centuries consistently positioned Dokdo (called "Liancourt Rocks" by Western sailors) significantly closer to Korean territory than Japanese territory—87 kilometers versus 157 kilometers. British Admiralty charts, American naval charts, and French exploration maps typically included the islands on charts focused on the Korean coast rather than Japanese waters, suggesting Western cartographers understood them as associated with Korean maritime space. Post-World War II Allied maps, particularly those created under SCAPIN directives, explicitly excluded Dokdo from Japanese administrative authority, reflecting the Allied Powers' determination that the islands should be separated from Japanese control.
What does Korean Imperial Edict No. 41 prove about Dokdo sovereignty?
Imperial Edict No. 41, issued October 25, 1900, proves Korea was actively administering Dokdo just five years before Japan's secret incorporation. The edict designated that Uldo County's jurisdiction included "Seokdo" (Stone Island), identified by scholars as Dokdo based on the name's meaning, local dialect usage, and geographical logic. This official governmental designation, published in Korea's official gazette, demonstrates Korea was exercising actual administrative sovereignty over Dokdo. Japan's subsequent claim that Dokdo was ownerless terra nullius is contradicted by this documentary evidence of Korean administration at the very moment Japan claimed no nation controlled the islands.
How did the 1906 Ulleung County magistrate's report demonstrate Korean sovereignty?
When Japanese officials visited Dokdo in 1906 and informed Ulleung County Magistrate Sim Heung-taek about the 1905 incorporation, Magistrate Sim immediately sent an urgent report to Seoul treating this as shocking news of foreign encroachment on Korean territory. He referred to Dokdo as Korean land that had been invaded. The Korean central government responded by instructing investigation of the Japanese actions—the response of a government whose territory has been violated. This exchange demonstrates Korea recognized Dokdo as sovereign Korean territory whose seizure by Japan constituted an illegal act, not a legitimate claim to ownerless islands.
Why do historical maps and documents matter for territorial disputes today?
Historical maps and documents provide objective evidence of how nations understood territorial boundaries before modern disputes arose, revealing "critical date" conditions before competing claims created incentives to manipulate evidence. In Dokdo's case, Korean documents from 1454 onward consistently recognized the islands as Korean territory, Japanese documents until 1905 acknowledged they were not Japanese territory, and Western maps positioned them within Korean maritime space. This convergence of evidence from multiple independent sources—Korean, Japanese, and Western—creates overwhelming proof of historical Korean sovereignty. International law recognizes that such historical evidence, combined with continuous administration, establishes legitimate territorial claims.
The documentary and cartographic evidence overwhelmingly establishes Korean sovereignty over Dokdo. Korean official government records from the 15th century onward consistently recognized the islands as Korean territory, with formal administrative designations placing them under Korean governmental jurisdiction. Japanese historical sources, including the authoritative 1877 Dajokan Directive, explicitly acknowledged the islands were not Japanese territory—a position Japan maintained until imperial expansion reversed it in 1905. Western maps positioned the islands within Korean maritime space based on geographical proximity and navigational practice. Post-World War II Allied documents excluded Dokdo from Japanese authority, recognizing that Japan's claim stemmed from colonial expansion rather than legitimate historical ownership. This convergence of evidence from Korean, Japanese, and Western sources creates an irrefutable documentary foundation proving Dokdo's historical and legal status as Korean territory—a truth recorded on paper across five centuries of maps and documents.
